Do you know who built the Virupaksha Temple of Pattadakal? Or the Mallikarjun Temple? You’ve probably heard of the dynasties and rulers who held sway there, always associating these magnificent temples with them. But did it ever cross your mind that it could have been built by queens?

Two of the most notable complexes in Pattadakal, now known as the Virupaksha (originally Lokeshvara) and Mallikarjuna (originally Trailokyeshvara) temples, were not commissioned by Chalukya kings but by two Chalukya queens. These queens, named Lokamahadevi (known as the great goddess of the world) and Trailokyamahadevi (known as the great goddess of the three worlds), were sisters from the Kalachuri dynasty in central India. They married Vikramaditya II, a future Chalukya king (reigning from 733–744 CE), in a strategic alliance. Their commissioning of these temples is remarkable as they are the only Chalukya royal women known to have built temples that still stand today. The contributions of Lokamahadevi and Trailokyamadevi go beyond mere historical footnotes.

Lokamahadevi: Administration, Architecture and Cultural Influences

Queen Lokamahadevi of the Chalukya dynasty stands out in medieval Indian history not only for her role as a queen consort but also for her significant contributions to administration and governance. Her influence extended beyond customary expectations, showcasing her agency in shaping political and cultural landscapes during her time.

As queen consort, Lokamahadevi actively participated in the administration of the Chalukya kingdom, demonstrating a keen understanding of governance and statecraft. Historical records indicate her involvement in managing land grants and revenue distribution, tasks typically reserved for male rulers or administrators.

Lokamahadevi’s most notable contribution was the commissioning of the Lokeshwara Temple (Virupaksha Temple) in Pattadakal. Constructed in the 8th century, the Virupaksha Temple, also known as the Lokeshwara Temple, derives its name not from a king or deity but from Queen Lokamahadevi. Inspired by the Kanchi Kailasanathar Temple, Lokamahadevi brought in sculptors from the Pallava capital to construct this temple. It is believed that the Kailasanathar Temple at Ellora was modelled after this very Virupaksha Temple. In fact, in recognition of the skill displayed in its construction, she exempted the entire class of builders of that district from the payment of certain taxes.

Signs posted at Pattadakal assert that these sisters were devoted to their husband and commissioned temples to commemorate his military triumphs. However, this assertion is backed by only one inscription: on the eastern gateway of the Lokeshvara temple, proclaiming it as the “temple of Lokeshvara of Lokamahadevi, (the queen) of Vikramaditya II, who three times conquered Kanchi.” Nowhere does Lokamahadevi explicitly state that she built the temple on behalf of her husband or as a commemoration. In fact, the temple’s iconography suggests a stronger association with her own authority and prestige.

The queens of the Chalukya period likely competed with each other in constructing temples dedicated to their kings. The Mallikarjuna Temple, also known as the Trailokeshwara Temple, was built by Queen Trilokamahadevi and is named after her. It closely resembles the Virupaksha Temple, featuring exquisite pillars and columns that depict stories from mythology, legends, Puranas, and epics.

Beyond her administrative and architectural endeavours, Lokamahadevi supported various cultural and artistic pursuits. She granted privileges and exemptions to musicians and dancers (gandharvas), encouraging artistic innovation and preserving cultural heritage within the Chalukya court. One of these, by name Achalā, seems to have founded a new school of dancing.

Inscriptions of Power

There are five inscriptions at Pattadakal that refer to Queen Consort Lokamahadevi, shedding light on her significant role and contributions during the reign of Vikramaditya II. These inscriptions provide insights into her administrative and cultural activities within the kingdom.

One inscription confirms a previous grant made by King Vijayaditya to local singers, underscoring Lokamahadevi’s patronage of the arts and her support for cultural institutions under her purview. Another inscription records a grant made by Lokamahadevi herself in favour of the Lokeshwara temple, likely named after her, showing her direct involvement in religious patronage and temple construction, reflecting her influence over religious affairs during her time.

A third inscription from the Virupaksha temple mentions Lokamahadevi alongside the architect Sutradhari, who was involved in the construction of the temple commissioned by her. This highlights her role not just as a ceremonial figurehead but as an active participant in architectural projects.

The fourth inscription commemorates the construction of another temple by Agramahishi in celebration of Vikramaditya II’s military victories over Kanchi, emphasizing her role in commemorating and promoting the dynasty’s military achievements through religious architecture.

Finally, the last inscription from the Virupaksha Temple attributes the construction of the Lokeshwara temple to Lokamahadevi herself, explicitly identifying her as the queen consort of Vikramaditya II from the Haihaya lineage. This inscription solidifies her agency and power.

Asserting Sovereignty through Symbolism

Lokamahadevi is shown standing on a throne backed by three lions and clutching a scepter with an elephant on top in a pavilion with pillars facing the main shrine. These are definite symbols of the royal family, as Professor Cathleen Ann Cummings explores in “Decoding a Hindu Temple”. They represent a lady who is very much a co-ruler rather than one who is dependent on her husband’s authority.

The implication is reinforced by a sculpture depicting a ferocious lion guarding a little boar. The lion was associated with the goddess Durga, while the boar, Varaha, served as the Chalukya dynasty’s insignia. A thorough examination of art history would thus clearly imply that Lokamahadevi intended to present herself as a kind of divine mother, providing the Chalukya state with protection and her feminine force, shakti. She was “the very mother of mankind, like the divine goddess Uma,” according to her husband’s successor Kirtivarman II (Epigraphia Indica III, page 6), and her husband Vikramaditya II “obtained great energy (mahotsaha) from her.” Although such declarations of might, glory, and uprightness are typical of royal self-presentation, it is questionable if Lokamahadevi’s subjects would have thought highly of her.

Legal Texts and Historical Realities

The issue of women’s political rights was not uniformly agreed upon even in ancient legal texts. In the Ramayana, there was a proposal to offer the crown to Sita when Rama was banished to the forest, but it did not materialize due to Sita’s determination to accompany him. The Mahabharata mentions that it is the duty of the conqueror to place a relative of the vanquished ruler on the throne, and if no male heir is available, even a daughter. Kautilya’s Arthashastra also recognizes the political authority of women in the absence of male heirs, allowing for a princess or widow to wield power until a suitable male successor could be found. However, not all texts agreed. Manu’s laws, for example, excluded women from succession under the principle of primogeniture.

Despite the lack of consensus among legal texts, numerous historical examples show women effectively participating in governance. Queens like Nayanika of the Satavahana dynasty, Prabhavati Gupta of the Vakataka family, Vijayabhattarika of the Chalukya house, and Didda of Kashmir successfully administered their kingdoms. These women were not mere placeholders but actively engaged in military and administrative duties, indicating that they received proper training.

For instance, inscriptions from the Chalukya administration (980-1160 AD) show that queen governors and officers were common. Women from Kshatriya families, often experts in the use of weapons, served as guards to the king. A Nilgund inscription records a military expedition led by a feudatory queen, demonstrating their active role in defence and governance.

Power, Perception and Narrative

As historian Devika Rangachari highlights in “From Obscurity to Light: Women in Early Medieval Odisha,” Lokamahadevi is described as “an ideal ruler who vanquished her enemies, spread the family’s glory, and established social harmony.” Her land grants and inscriptions, where she claims the title of maharajadhiraja (Great King of Kings) and uses masculine appellations, underscore her assertion of power.

However, the portrayal of royal women as powerful figures is often contested. Dr. Rangachari notes that female rulers are frequently depicted as “shadowy, ineffectual figures” in historical works, overshadowed by their male counterparts. Yet, these women, through their inscriptions and public works, demonstrated a real desire to rule and maintain their dynasties’ power.

The medieval world was unapologetically patriarchal, where kings were portrayed as figures of supreme charisma and power. Inscriptions often depicted their military conquests in terms of sexual dominance, reinforcing their virility and authority. For example, the Chalukya king Vikramaditya I claimed to have “forcibly wooed the lady of the Southern Quarter” after conquering Kanchi. Similarly, Rashtrakuta king Krishna I’s conquest was described as taking the “Goddess of Royal Fortune of the Chalukyas” in battle.

Women in royal families were often confined to the antahpuram, the Inner City, but there are exceptions where women broke through these confines. Queens like Didda of Kashmir, who ruled for 22 years as a full sovereign, depicts the potential for female agency in a male-dominated society. These women navigated the political landscape with a combination of family connections, ruthlessness, and sheer will.

Modern literature and scholarship have begun to reinterpret these historical narratives, offering more nuanced views of royal women. For instance, contemporary books reframe epic characters like Sita and Draupadi, emphasizing their resilience and political acumen. These reinterpretations challenge traditional gender roles and highlight the significant political implications of women’s actions in premodern India. One classic example is Chitra Banerjee’s “The Palace of Illusions.”

However, while celebrating these powerful women, it is crucial to acknowledge the darker aspects of their reigns. Medieval royal women, like their male counterparts, could be ruthless. As scholar Molly Emma Aitken discusses in “Pardah and Portrayal,” royal women could also perpetuate violence and oppression, particularly towards those of lower status.

The powerful women of medieval India were complex figures, navigating a patriarchal world with both grace and ruthlessness. Their stories, often overshadowed by their male counterparts, are crucial for understanding the broader dynamics of power and gender in history. By revisiting and reinterpreting these narratives, we can gain a deeper appreciation of the roles women played in shaping India’s political and cultural landscapes.

References:

Books:

⦁ Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta. A History of South India: From Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1955. ⦁ Dikshit, Durga Prasad. Political History of the Chalukyas of Badami. Delhi: Meharchand Lachhmandas Publications, 1974. ⦁ Kanisetti, Anirudh. Lords of the Deccan: Southern India from the Chalukyas to the Cholas. Hardcover.

Journal Articles:

⦁ Coomaraswamy, Ananda K. “Architecture and Sculpture at Pattadakal.” Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art 2, no. 3 (1914): 10-25.

Online Articles:

⦁ Kaligotla, Subhashini. “A Temple Without a Name: Deccan Architecture and the Canon for Sacred Indian Buildings.” Deccan Herald. Accessed June 27, 2024. https://www.deccanherald.com/features/reigning-queens-808885.html. ⦁ “Political History of the Chalukyas of Badami.” Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research 6, no. 2 (2019). Accessed June 27, 2024. https://www.jetir.org/papers/JETIRAP06022.pdf.