Introduction

Hindu scriptures are broadly divided into srutis (the heard) and smrtis (the remembered). A huge corpus of texts, broadly divided into six groups – Vedas, Upavedas, Vedangas, Smritis, Itihasa-Puranas, and Darsanas, lay the foundation for knowledge and the wisdom of Indian civilizational heritage. They deal with philosophy, science, art, medicine, music, language, grammar, justice, and every conceivable domain of laukika and adhyaatmic knowledge related to Ishwara, the world, and the individual.

The four Vedas are the core sruti texts: Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, and Atharvaveda. Each Veda further subdivides into four sections: Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads. Broadly, the Samhitas deal with mantra, the Brahmanas with karma (work, action, ritual), and the Aranyakas with dhyana (meditation). While the Samhitas and Brahmanas dealing with ritual activities form the Karma kanda, the Upanishads (or Vedanta, the final portion of Vedas) form the Jnana kanda– treatises on the philosophical aspects and deep discussions on the body, mind, soul, nature, consciousness, and the universe. The Aranyakas are sometimes counted separately as belonging to Upasana Kanda– treatises on devotion and meditation, but often they are combined together with Upanishads to form Jnana Kanda itself. This is a generalisation since the Samhitas, Brahmanas, an Aranyakas has many philosophical insights just as there are ritualistic verses in the Upanishads.

Of the several Upanishads (at least 108 of them), ten have the most commentaries and are ‘major’ only for this reason: Isa, Kena, Katha, Prasna, Mundaka, Mandukya, Taittiriya, Aitareya, Chandogya, and Brhadaranyaka. Traditionally, all the Upanishads which have Adi Shankara’s commentaries along with the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahma Sutras of Veda Vyasa form the Prasthana-trayi, or the three authoritative fountainheads of Vedanta.

Loosely, the Vedic divisions also associate with the ashramas or stages of life: the Samhitas to brahmacarya (student); the Brahmanas correspond to grhasta (householder); the Aranyakas correspond to vanaprastha (forest dweller), and the Upanishads correspond to sanyasa (the ascetic). Adi Shankara selected ten of the Upanishads and wrote commentaries on them highlighting the Advaita doctrine. Later, Ramanuja and Madhwa wrote commentaries on the same ten Upanishads emphasising their own doctrines of Vishishta-Advaita and Dvaita respectively.

The Isopanishad is one of the shortest Upanishads, the final chapter of the Shukla Yajurveda. It is a principal Upanishad consisting of just 18 verses (17 in another recension). Nithin Sridhar deals with the recension of 18 verses. This Upanishad gets its name from the first portion of the beginning verse “Isavasyam Idam Sarvam”. This verse declares that Brahman pervades the whole world and we should all strive to reach the state of realising the ‘Parmaatma Tatva’.  This Upanishad is also one of the few for which the Svara (intonation) exists and is hence available for chanting.

The Theme of Isopanishad

Isopanishad is one of the most concise and important of the Upanishads dealing with the nature of Atman, Brahman, and moksa. This is the only Upanishad attached to a Samhita– a Samhitopanishad. Other Upanishads generally attach to other layers of Brahmanas and Aranyakas. Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, also belonging to Shukla Yajur Veda, is a Brahmanopanishad (attached to Brahmanas). Some consider the four hundred verses of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad as an elaboration of the eighteen verses of Isopanishad.

The sastras speak about four-fold goals of human life – dharma, artha, kama and moksa. ‘Dharma’ has a wide range of meanings ranging from ethics and justice to law and duty. ‘Artha’ refers to the wealth and ‘Kama’ to desires which one attains through dharmic means. These three –dharma, artha, and kama –refer to the immediate goals pertaining to one’s life. The destination and final purpose of life however is ‘moksa’ or liberation from the karmic cycle of birth and death. In the Indian darshanas, all the six orthodox schools (believing in the authority of Veda- Yoga, Samkhya, Nyaya, Vaisesika, Mimansa, and Vedanta) and non-orthodox schools (Buddhism, Jainism) acknowledge moksa and karma as the most important principles of human life. The Charvaks (materialists) of the non-orthodox school are the only exception.

Isopanishad expounds on Atma and the means to attain moksa. The Hindu philosophy assigns a firm meaning and a purpose to the life of a being, big or small. However, only humans have the capacity to overcome their inherent nature and elevate themselves to the higher states of existence. Sannyasins or ‘nivrttimargis’ are those who renounce worldly attachments and are involved in the practice of jnana sadhana to attain moksa. On the other hand, those people (most householders) in whom desires still exist are ‘pravrttimargis’. The practice of rituals and rites (karmanusthana) and meditations (bhakti or upasana) are important for them. However, those on the ‘third path’ live recklessly and suffer repeated births. The nivrttimarga, pravrttimarga and the ‘third path’ constitute the subject matter of Isopanishad.

The Author’s Commentary

Nithin Sridhar has a Civil Engineering degree and made an interesting transition from an almost non-believer attitude to being one of the foremost proponents of Hindu Dharma as a writer, thinker, and organizer. He gave up his job and is now devoted full time to the protection and propagation of Sanatana Dharma. He was previously the editor of Indiafacts– a portal for the protection of Hindu civilization and heritage where he launched and nurtured many a writing career. He is presently the Chief Curator of Advaita Academy- an organization solely dedicated to the dissemination of Advaita Vedanta. He is a prolific writer on politics, ecology, and social issues from a dharmic perspective. He has authored six books about Hindu Dharma with ‘Menstruation across Cultures: A Historical Perspective’ being one of his most popular books. This is an important and detailed book written in the aftermath of the Sabarimala episode where he examines the notions of menstruation in different cultures and religions both in India and across the world. His forte is to bring the loftiest ideas to the realm of ordinary minds in the simplest language possible. The present book is no different.

Nithin Sridhar divides this book Isopanishad into two sections. The first part is a verse-by-verse translation of each of the mantras. His lucid explanation divides each mantra into four sections: a word to word translation; its comprehensive meaning; deeper analysis of the mantra; and a summary. The references are extensive covering many scriptures showing his authority on the subject which also stimulates the interested reader to explore further.

The first three verses describe the three distinct paths of life: a life of renouncement; a life of householder; and a life of darkness and ignorance. The next four verses elucidate on the nature of Brahman (all-pervasive and transcendent both) and shows that it is the same as the Atman inside each of the living beings. The verses from 9 to 14 is the ‘crux’ of the Isopanishad which describe the pravrttimargis (the householders)- the conduct of their life in a correct combination of karma (as per dharmic tenets) and devotion (or upasana). This right combination leads to a gradual kramamukti over many lives. Verses 15 to 18 are prayers to the Sun and Agni (fire) to help dissolve the sins and guide man to reach the state of moksha by showing a good path.

In the second section, the author discusses the philosophy of the Upanishad with extensive references again. It is amazing that just eighteen verses can have so much power that it encapsulates the entire Indian philosophy and a person can spend almost a lifetime contemplating on it.

Nivrttimarga: The Path to Jivanmukti

Those who have turned away from the material and sensory attachments and have only a desire for moksa are the ‘nivrttimargis’. Moksa or liberation refers to the cessation of the karmic cycle of birth and death. In such a state, one’s ignorance (avidya) about the true nature of the innermost Self or Atman disappears and one realizes the identity and non-difference between Atman and Brahman.

The scriptures speak about two different frames of reference to understand the relationship between the individual, the world and Brahman: vyavaharika dasa and the paramarthika dasa. The former refers to the relative state of reference. It is from this plane of vyavaharika, bound by avidya or ignorance, there exist jiva (individual), jagat (world) and Isvara (God). The paramarthika dasa is a state of non-duality (advaita) where the ‘One’ alone exists (Brahman). The distinctions of Isvara, jiva, and jagat cease to exist in this state. While the vyavaharika state is a temporary and relative state of existence, the paramarthika dasa is the absolute and permanent state of existence. A jnani who has attained atmajnana (self-realization) perceives paramarthika satya alone. The knower, the known, and the process of knowing become one in this state.

Though birthless, eternal and without any movement, Brahman, by its power of maya manifests the whole universe as an appearance. Hence, in vyavaharika dasa, Brahman is both the material and the intelligent cause of the universe. The universe is also known as ‘jagat’ or ‘universal movement’ because it is subject to modifications such as birth, growth, transformation, decay, and death. Hence, though in an absolute sense Brahman is devoid of all movement and hence above them, in the relative plane, He does exist as the innermost-Self of all objects of the universe.

Brahman is also ‘nirguna’ and ‘saguna’. Nirguna refers to ‘devoid of gunas’ and saguna refers to ‘endowed with gunas’. Brahman in paramarthika state is ‘nirguna’ and the same Brahman when manifesting the universe as an appearance through his maya, is ‘saguna’. Importantly, the paramarthika satya or absolute truth is beyond any positive description or logical comprehension. Hence, all the descriptions are merely pointers explained in relation to the vyavaharika dasa. Brahman is beyond all words, all thoughts, all descriptions, and all duality and one can only experience it as a direct knowledge (aparoksa jnana/immediate knowledge).

A person who has purified his mind and has acquired the four-fold qualities of sadhana chatusthaya: (discrimination; dispassion; control of the mind and the senses; and a burning desire for liberation) becomes competent to practice jnana sadhana. Such a person, under the guidance of a competent guru, should practice ‘sravanacatustaya’:  sravana (listening), manana (internalizing the teachings), nididhyasana (meditation and introspection), and or atma-jnana (Self-realization). Meditation and introspection are the most fundamental principles of Hindu Dharma. Faith is important but there is never a sacrifice of reason and intellect in Hindu traditions.

The mahavakya ‘tat tvam asi’ (‘thou art that’) equates the jiva and Brahman. Here, the ‘thou’ refers not to the jiva limited by body and mind, but to the Atma, the inner-most Self who is ever-free and the lone witness of the body, mind, and the senses. This ever-free Atman is nondifferent from Brahman, the substratum of the universe which is also eternal and birthless. This direct realization of Brahman as immediate and inner-most Self is ‘aparoksa jnana’ or ‘atmajnana’. Such a realized person is a ‘jivanmukta’.

For such a ‘jivanmukta’, the body stays in the world and works out its karmas but the Self remains untouched by those actions like a cow not affected by the garland around its neck. Ever established in Brahman, there is no anger, hate, delusion, or attachment. Such a jivanmukta will have no duties, no obligations towards anybody. Yet he stays in the world, only for the welfare of the world and to guide others towards mukti.

Pravrttimarga: The Path to Kramamukti

People who have desires for physical, sexual, psychological, worldly, and other-worldly happiness are ‘pravrttimargis’. Scriptures classify these desires of a worldly man (samsari or householder) into three categories- desire for wealth; desire for progeny; and desire for attaining worlds. Isopanishad instructs on ‘Karmanusthana’ and Upasana in combination to travel on the gradual path towards moksha for the householder.

‘Karmanusṭhana’ refers to all karmas (actions) prescribed in the scriptures for the spiritual and material welfare of the individuals and the society according to the tenets of dharma. Upasana includes the practice of bhakti to attain higher spiritual goals. This path of kramamukti or the gradual process of liberation results from a combination of Karma and Upasana and is possible for any individual irrespective of his varna.

Karmas which allows material and spiritual welfare is dharma. All those karmas (thoughts, words, and actions) that result in an imbalance of the material and spiritual stability of an individual, society and the cosmos are ‘adharma’. Scriptures divide actions into ‘vihita’ (permitted) and ‘nisiddha’(prohibited). The practice of vihita karmas is dharma and practice of nisiddha karmas is adharma.

Dharma: Samanya and Visesa

In popular language, dharma has various partial meanings like duty, charity, righteousness, justice, morality, and so on. However, ‘dharma’ literally means ‘that which upholds’. It is Brahman who sustains the universe by allotting each object its respective duties according to its nature. Hence, the gunas and karmas created by Brahman upholds the universe and establish cosmic order. What are the sources from which one must learn dharma? Jaimini in his Mimansa-Sutra says that Veda is the ultimate source for knowing dharma. Manusmriti adds to Veda, the Smrtis, the conduct of good persons (i.e. saints), and self-satisfaction as the three other sources of dharmic conduct.

Dharma is broadly divided into two categories- samanya (common to all) and visesa (special duties with respect to the individual and context). Dharma for an individual (svadharma) consists of Samanya-dharma and the specifically applicable visesa-dharma. This adherence of a person to svadharma constitutes ‘karmanusthana’. Non-injury, truth, non-stealing, cleanliness, control of mind and senses- these are the dharma that is common to people of all varnas. ‘Visesa-Dharma’ depends upon different factors like an individual’s temperament and inner callings (varna), station in life (asrama), time (kala), location (desa), and emergency situations (apad dharma).

Among all the above factors, varna and asrama are central to the practice of Visesa-Dharma. Bhagavad Gita speaks about the creation of four varnas based on guna (natural qualities and tendencies) and karma (personal duties), which in turn are based on one’s prarabdha karma (actions of previous lives which now fructifies in the form of present life). The author discusses in detail the three elements in the ideals of varna: identification, classification, and assignment of different duties.

Most importantly, varna has no correlation to the concept of caste or caste identities as understood in present society which is mostly a colonial construct and superimposition on Indian society. It is important to understand that no varna is superior or inferior to another varna. This division of people into different varnas was solely for the proper division of duties to create a prosperous and harmonious society.

The second element of Visesa-Dharma is asrama dharma. Asrama refers to different stages in a person’s life –brahmacarya (student), gṛhasta (householder), vanaprastha (renunciate) and sannyasa (total detachment). Grhasta asrama is the most vital as far as karmanusthana is concerned. For example, the Brhadaraṇyakopanisad describes three principle duties for a brahmana householder. They are: studying and chanting of Vedas, performance of yajnas and other karmas, and the attainment of all the three worlds. The author wonderfully explains all the Samskaras (41 of them), many of them applicable to all varnas, starting from the process of conception to the death of the jiva.

Upasana: The Streams of Devotion

Upasana (‘upa’ and ‘asana’- ‘to sit near’) is one of the central practices of almost all Hindu spiritual traditions. The three streams of upasana are dhyana, puja and bhakti. Dhyana means one-pointed concentration or meditation with the mind fixed upon the object of meditation. This could be on Brahman (with or without form) or on other aspects like murtis, sounds, and mantras. The wealth of upasana techniques enunciated in the Upanishads further developed in later Hindu traditions. Patanjali Yoga Sutras, for example, provide an eight-limbed framework for spiritual emancipation, wherein Dhyana plays a central role

The second stream of upasana, which especially developed in the Pauranika, Agamika and Tantrika traditions, was the understanding of upasana as puja or ritual worship. Puja has a wider connotation which includes not only internal elements of concentration and meditation, but also elements of external worship like purification (Suddhi), divinization (nyasa), invocation of the deity (avahana), and various external offerings to a deity (upacara).

The third stream of upasana, which has its roots in the Upanishads, but developed its distinct flavour in the Itihasa–Purana tradition, was the understanding of upasana as bhakti yoga. There are two elements in understanding bhakti: that it is of the nature of supreme bliss, and that it is supreme love directed towards Isvara. ‘I belong to him’, ‘He belongs to me’ and ‘I am He’ are the three successive stages of bhakti through which a devotee invariably goes through as his bhakti matures.

The Third Path: The Path to Suffering

The dharmasastras speak elaborately about various sins that are committed by people. Manu smriti broadly classifies these sins under three categories as those done through body, through speech, and through mind. The karmic punishments are also in the form of respective sufferings experienced through the body, speech, and mind. After death, these people suffer in various realms of various narakas and later take rebirth in wombs of various creatures to face their karmic fruits.

The author then describes briefly the twenty-eight types of narakas as described in the Bhagavata Purana. It is interesting to note the various types of adharmic activities defined which include disrespect and violence to family, wife, guests, plant life, and both wild and pet animals. Excessive attachment to money or a desire for another person’s wife comes for special attention.

A jiva will take birth in the earthly realm after suffering punishment in these naraka-s for various adharmic activities. The birth on the earth is again determined by the previous actions of the jiva. In Manu smriti, we find an exhaustive list about the kinds of future births based on adharmic activities in current life. For example, those who delight in doing hurt become carnivorous animals. There are various births as lower creatures and animals described for violating another woman, disrespecting a guru, and stealing of any kind including property belonging to others. Women, also, who in like manner have committed adharma, become the females of those same creatures as enumerated for men.

Subjected to a difficult journey through narakas and a series of births in the wombs of different creatures, those people who have abandoned both nivrtti and pravrtti dharmas suffer. Desire, selfishness, and adharma lead to immense suffering after the death of their human body. It may take a very long time for many to exhaust the fruits of their demerits and regain human life again. It is for this reason, the Upanishads and dharmasastras stress that one should live a dharmic life through the performance of karmanusthana and devatopasana, such that one travels on the upward journey towards moksa, rather than spiral into the deeper darkness of tamas and the associated suffering.

Concluding Remarks: Interpretations, Understandings, Traditions, and Svadhyaya

Nithin Sridhar follows the Advaitic interpretation of Isopanishad. We have commentaries in the Vishishta-Advaita and Dvaita traditions too from their viewpoint of the same Upanishad. There have been countless translations and commentaries by Indians and westerners on this important Upanishad. It is however an amazing facet of Indian traditions that differing ‘interpretations’ never resulted in violence. Heresy is significantly absent in Indian culture despite the innumerable traditions, sharp disagreements, and polemics.

This has a wrong interpretation that Indians believe in ‘many’ or ‘multiple’ truths. The notion of truth in India is as robustly absolutist as possible. Shankara and Madhwa differ from each other on most texts and yet Madhwa did not consider Shankara a heretic; none of the pupils and students of Shankara ever criticized Madhwa for teaching heresies. The inherent nature of traditional cultures has the crucial idea of ‘I am saying the truth but you are not saying falsehood.’ Madhwa thinks that Shankara is wrong and that he is right; but not that he preaches the truth and that Shankara propagates falsehood. Heresy is only about propagating falsehood instead of truth. It is the fundamental characteristic of pluralism in traditions that there is no anxiety to call other the ‘enemy’ or a ‘heretic’ despite sharp differences.  This is one of the fundamental theses of SN Balagangadhara that we cannot thus speak of Hinduism as a ‘religion’ like Christianity, Islam, or Judaism. Here, only one interpretation can be true; all others are wrong or misguided. Such a fight between ‘truth’ and ‘falsehood’ never raises its head in a land of traditions.

As my favourite science writer Michio Kaku says, science constantly seeks an equation like an E=mc² to fundamentally unite everything in the world. A dream equation that would explain all of nature; even the individual and God too. Swami Vivekananda said Vedanta had reached such unity many thousands of years back. ‘The Vedantist declares that unity is the only thing that exists; variety is but phenomenal, ephemeral and apparent.’ Such a unity manifests itself in the four mahavakyas (great sayings) from the corpus of Upanishads: Prajnanam Brahma (Brahman is insight); Ayam Atma Brahma (This Atman is Brahman); Tat Tvam Asi (that essence is you); and Aham Brahma Asmi (I am Brahman).

The claim of physics is that when one looks straight ahead the farthest object in the universe is the back of the person’s head. The entire body of scriptures and all the pursuits of knowledge finally leads an individual ‘I’ to the ‘I-I’ in the spiritual heart as Ramana Maharishi was fond of saying. All knowledge and pursuits finally lead to the knowledge ‘I am Brahman’, the experiential realization of which is the goal of all human pursuits. Hinduism is a whole body of traditions comprising rituals, stories, and philosophies. There are no hierarchies here. It is perhaps wrong that one ‘ascends’ from stories to rituals to jnana. It is the genius of our rishis and saints who devised all three methods to suit various temperaments of the human body, mind, and intellect.

Sanatana Dharma is all about different routes to reach the final state of moksa. One may be a doctor, engineer, journalist, painter, butcher, teacher, academic, scientist, potter, sportsperson, politician, guard, domestic help, singer, actor, priest, nurse, or anything; one may give up everything too, Hindu traditions has a route for every individual and every temperament. Karma, Bhakti, Jnana, Advaita, Dvaita, Samkhya, Yoga, Itihaasas, Puranas, scriptures, texts, saints, gurus, varnas, ashramas, and so on are descriptions and guides for the various paths an individual may undertake. Whatever the ‘interpretations’ of texts be, it is the intense svadhyaya (internal contemplation) that finally helps an individual on a vast journey across cosmos to reach the back of his head and say in a supreme moment of realisation ‘I am That.’

In his important essay ‘How to Speak for Indian Traditions’, Dr SN Balagangadhara says:

With respect to any given individual, as route descriptions, the Indian traditions are retrospective in nature…They help you orient yourself only by telling you where you have come from and where you are currently. But in doing so they also function prospectively: they encourage you to proceed thoughtfully on your journey…

Neither the “first look” (at the sight) nor the “first reading” (of the route description) is authoritative: you need to doubt both and test both with respect to each other…these route descriptions inculcate the ability to go about the world experimentally… Indian traditions are guides to action…As human beings we are pretty similar; as individuals, we are unlike each other. What helps one person may or may not help another …

There are indefinitely many routes, and the route descriptions can migrate and cross-fertilize as the routes cut across each other…But all of them have only one function: to reach “the” destination… the insights of these traditions are not “doctrines” or even straightforward (partial) descriptions of the world. They are “route descriptions” relativized both to the route and to the individual on that route…. Because of this, it is not possible to speak either about the truth or about the falsity of such traditions but only about whether or not some route description taught the individual to go about the world experimentally.’

Each text of our rishis can thus become a great means of svadhyaya, irrespective of its many ‘interpretations’, to any person at any stage of life. The Isopanishad with just 18 verses is the most power-packed text to begin such a journey. In fact, Gandhi gave the highest endorsement to this Upanishad when he said that its first verse is enough for Hinduism to survive even if every other knowledge base burns to ashes. Nithin Sridhar does a fantastic service to bring it to the realm of ordinary people and non-scholars. Indian traditions never ‘dumb down’ knowledge or reduce it to irrelevant factoids. Simplification never means taking over the thinking capacity and the mind of the seeker. The seeker always has the responsibility of making the effort.

Isopanisad: An English Commentary. Nithin Sridhar. 2021. Subbu Publication. Rs 348. It is available for purchase on Amazon and the publisher website.